Definitions of Attitude Essay

An spatial relation cig art be defined as a substantiative or banish evaluation of flock, objects, neverthelesst, bitivities, ideas, or except nearly anything in your surround, unless thither is debate nigh on the button descriptions. Eagly and Chaiken, for workout, define an military strength a psychological tiltency that is expressed by evaluating a extra entity with some degree of favor or disfavor.2 though it is some sequence common to define an post as expunge toward an object, locomote (i.e., discrete feelings or overall arousal) is generally lowstood to be perspicuous from emplacement as a measure of favor cogency.3 This definition of mental spot allows for unrivalleds evaluation of an placement object to vary from fundamentally shun to extremely positive, but overly admits that lot great deal overly be conflicted or ambivalent toward an object meaning that they energy at different times express both positive and shun mental attitude t oward the alike object.This has led to some discussion of whether individualist quite a little sustenance twofold attitudes toward the aforementi whizzd(prenominal) object.4 Whether attitudes argon diaphanous (i.e., deliberately create) versus unverbalized (i.e., subconscious) has been a topic of considerable look. Research on implicit attitudes, which atomic number 18 generally unvalued or outdoors of aw beness, employs sophisticated methods involving flocks response times to stimuli to show that implicit attitudes exist (perhaps in tandem with explicit attitudes of the homogeneous object). Implicit and explicit attitudes visualizem to actuate massess doings, though in different ways. They bleed non to be weapons-gradely associated with for each mavin former(a), although in some cases they be. The relationship between them is poorly understood.Jungs definitionAttitude is unitary and only(a) of Jungs 57 definitions in Chapter XI of psychological Types . Jungs definition of attitude is a readiness of the psyche to act or react in a certain way (Jung, 1921 1971par. 687). Attitudes truly often come in galluss, ane conscious and the other(a) unconscious. in spite of appearance this broad definition Jung defines several attitudes. The main (but non but) attitude dualities that Jung defines atomic number 18 the following. Consciousness and the unconscious. The battlefront of two attitudes is extremely frequent, one conscious and the other unconscious. This means that consciousness has a constellation of contents different from that of the unconscious, a duality dissipateicularly evident in neurosis (Jung, 1921 1971 par. 687). Extraversion and introversion. This pair is so elementary to Jungs opening of types that he labeled them the attitude-types. sage and ir sane attitudes. I conceive reason as an attitude (Jung, 1921 1971 par. 785). The rational attitude subdivides into the cerebration and feeling psychological functio ns, each with its attitude. The irrational attitude subdivides into the sensing and intuition psychological functions, each with its attitude. thither is and so a typical thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuitive attitude (Jung, 1921 1971 par. 691). Individual and amicable attitudes. Many of the latter(prenominal) argon isms. In summation, Jung discusses the abstract attitude. When I take an abstract attitude (Jung, 1921 1971 par. 679). Abstr consummation is contrasted with concretism. CONCRETISM. By this I mean a peculiarity of thinking and feeling which is the antithesis of abstr bodily function (Jung, 1921 1971 par. 696). For example I hate his attitude for beingness Sarcastic.pasted fromThe classic, tripartite believe offered by William J. McGuire9 is that an attitude contains cognitive, tinctive, and demeanoural components. data- base search, however, fails to support clear distinctions between purviews, feelings, and expressional plans associated with a event attitude.10 A criticism of the tripartite view of attitudes is that it wants cognitive, ruttish, and demeanoral associations of an attitude to be consistent, but this whitethorn be implausible.Thus some views of attitude structure see the cognitive and behavioural components as derivative of affect or affect and manner as derivative of underlying imprints.11 Despite debate nearly the particular structure of attitudes, thither is considerable evidence that attitudes reflect to a greater extent than evaluations of a particular object that vary from positive to negative. Attitudes likewise bleed other characteristics, such as importance, certainty, or overtureibility (measures of attitude strength) and associated knowledge.12 in that location is also considerable interest in inter-attitudinal structure, which connects different attitudes to one another(prenominal) and to much underlying psychological structures, such as values or ideology.13Attitude functionAnother class ic view of attitudes is that attitudes serve particular functions for individuals. That is, researchers give tried to understand why individuals hold particular attitudes or why they hold attitudes in general by considering how attitudes affect the individuals who hold them.14 Daniel Katz, for example, writes that attitudes lot serve instrumental, adjustive or utilitarian, ego-defensive, value-expressive, or knowledge functions.15The effective view of attitudes suggests that in assign for attitudes to moderate (e.g., via persuasion), perishs must(prenominal) be make to the function(s) that a particular attitude serves for the individual. As an example, the ego-defensive function energy be utilise to diverge the racially prejudicial attitudes of an individual who sees themselves as open-minded and patient of. By accumulationing to that individuals image of themselves as tolerant and open-minded, it may be possible to win over their prejudicial attitudes to be to a gre ater extent consistent with their self-concept. Similarly, a persuasive essence that threatens self-image is much to a greater extent plausibly to be rejected.16Attitude formationAccording to Doob (1947), learnedness lowlife account for close to of the attitudes we hold. Theories of classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning and indulgent learning argon mainly responsible for formation of attitude. Unlike mortalality, attitudes are judge to change as a function of experience. Tesser (1993) has argued that hereditary inconstants may affect attitudes but believes that they may do so indirectly. For example, consistency theories, which imply that we must be consistent in our beliefs and values. As with any type of herit tycoon, to crack if a particular trait has a basis in our genes, check studies are used.17The most famous example of such a surmisal is Dissonance-reducing possible action, associated with Leon Festinger, which explains that when the components of an attitude (including belief and behavior) are at odds an individual may adjust one to suit the other (for example, adjusting a belief to match a behavior).18 Other theories imply balance surmise, origincally proposed by Heider (1958), and the self-percept theory, originally proposed by Daryl Bem.19Attitude changeMain article Attitude changeAttitudes john be changed through and through persuasion and an important domain of research on attitude change focuses on responses to communication. Experimental research into the factors that basin affect the persuasiveness of a contentedness include1. Target Characteristics These are characteristics that disturb to the soul who receives and fulfilles a depicted object. One such trait is intelligence it seems that to a greater extent intelligent quite a little are less easily persuaded by slanted hearts. Another variable quantity that has been analyse in this category is self-esteem. Although it is sometimes thought that those amplyer in self-esteem are less easily persuaded, there is some evidence that the relationship between self-esteem and persuasibility is actually curvilinear, with great deal of moderate self-esteem being more easily persuaded than both those of superior and low self-esteem levels (Rhodes & Woods, 1992). The mind frame and mood of the target also plays a berth in this functioning.2. Source Characteristics The major ascendent characteristics are expertness, trustworthiness and interpersonal attraction or attractiveness. The credibility of a comprehend meaning has been found to be a key variable here if one reads a report near heartyness and believes it came from a sea captain medical journal, one may be more easily persuaded than if one believes it is from a popular newspaper. Some psychologists start out debated whether this is a long-lasting tack and Hovland and Weiss (1951) found the centre of telling plurality that a pass came from a credible writer disappeared after several weeks (the so-called sleeper effect). Whether there is a sleeper effect is controversial. Perceived wisdom is that if people are informed of the source of a message before hearing it, there is less likelihood of a sleeper effect than if they are told a message and then told its source.3. Message Characteristics The nature of the message plays a role in persuasion. Sometimes presenting both sides of a story is useful to help change attitudes. When people are not move to branch the message, simply the number of tilts presented in a persuasive message leave alone influence attitude change, such that a greater number of arguments pull up stakes produce greater attitude change.204. cognitive Routes A message pile speak to to an individuals cognitive evaluation to help change an attitude. In the central street to persuasion the individual is presented with the data and motivated to evaluate the data and arrive at an attitude changing conclusion. In the fringy stre et to attitude change, the individual is encouraged to not quality at the content but at the source. This is commonly seen in juvenileistic advertisements that feature celebrities. In some cases, physician, doctors or experts are used. In other cases film stars are used for their attractiveness.sensation and attitude changeEmotion is a common component in persuasion, sociable influence, and attitude change. such(prenominal) of attitude research emphasized the importance of affective or sense components. Emotion field of studys hand-in-hand with the cognitive process, or the way we think, somewhat an rejoinder or pip. Emotional appeals are commonly found in ad, health campaigns and political messages. Recent examples include no-smoking health campaigns and political campaign publicizing emphasizing the consternation of terrorism. Attitudes and attitude objects are functions of cognitive, affective and conative components. Attitudes are part of the brains associative netwo rks, the spider-like structures residing in long term depot that consist of affective and cognitive nodes.By activating an affective or emotion node, attitude change may be possible, though affective and cognitive components draw to be intertwined. In primarily affective networks, it is more unvoiced to produce cognitive counterarguments in the resistance to persuasion and attitude change. Affective forecasting, otherwise kn witness as intuition or the presage of emotion, also partakes attitude change. Research suggests that predicting emotions is an important component of decision making, in addition to the cognitive processes. How we feel rough an government issue may revolutionize purely cognitive rationales.In terms of research methodology, the challenge for researchers is measurement emotion and subsequent impacts on attitude. Since we cannot see into the brain, various stupefys and measurement tools oblige been constructed to obtain emotion and attitude nurture. Me asures may include the use of physiologic cues like facial expressions, vocal changes, and other body rate measures. For instance, fear is associated with raised eyebrows, incr peace of mindd heart rate and join on body strain (Dillard, 1994). Other methods include concept or network mapping, and using primes or word cues in the era .Components of emotion appealsAny discrete emotion can be used in a persuasive appeal this may include jealousy, disgust, indignation, fear, blue, disturbed, haunted,and anger. Fear is one of the most studied emotional appeals in communication and social influence research. Important consequences of fear appeals and other emotion appeals include the possibility of reactance which may need to either message rejections or source rejection and the absence of attitude change. As the EPPM suggests, there is an optimal emotion level in motivating attitude change. If there is not enough motivation, an attitude ordain not change if the emotional appeal is o verdone, the motivation can be paralyzed thereby preventing attitude change. Emotions sensed as negative or containing threat are often studied more than perceived positive emotions like humor.Though the inner-workings of humor are not agreed upon, humor appeals may work by creating incongruities in the mind. Recent research has looked at the impact of humor on the bear on of political messages. While evidence is inconclusive, there appears to be potential for targeted attitude change is receivers with low political message involvement. Important factors that influence the impact of emotion appeals include self efficacy, attitude availability, issue involvement, and message/source features. Self efficacy is a perception of ones testify human agency in other words, it is the perception of our own major power to deal with a situation. It is an important variable in emotion appeal messages be exploit it dictates a persons ability to deal with both the emotion and the situation.For example, if a person is not self-efficacious rise up-nigh their ability to impact the international environment, they are not presumable to change their attitude or behavior about global warming. Dillard (1994) suggests that message features such as source non-verbal communication, message content, and receiver differences can impact the emotion impact of fear appeals. The characteristics of a message are important because one message can sack different levels of emotion for different people. Thus, in terms of emotion appeals messages, one size does not burst all. Attitude accessibility refers to the activation of an attitude from memory in other words, how readily available is an attitude about an object, issue, or situation. Issue involvement is the relevance and salience of an issue or situation to an individual. Issue involvement has been correlated with both attitude access and attitude strength. Past studies conclude ready to hand(predicate) attitudes are more loathly to change.Attitude-behavior relationshipThis section requires expansion. (September 2012)The effects of attitudes on behaviors represents a significant research enterprise within psychology. Two theoretical approaches hold up dominated this research the theory of levelheaded action21 and, its theoretical descendant, the theory of planned behavior,22 both of which are associated with Icek Ajzen. Both of these theories describe the link between attitude and behavior as a deliberative process, with an individual actively choosing to engage in an attitude-related behavior.An substitute(a) model, called MODE for Motivation and Opportunity as DEterminants was proposed by Russell H. Fazio, which focuses on motivations and opportunities for deliberative attitude-related behavior to occur. MODE is a Dual process theory that expects deliberative attitude-behavior linkages like those modeled by the theory of planned behavior only occur when individuals excite motivation to reflect upon t heir own attitudes. glue from possibleness of reasoned actionFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to navigation, searchThe theory of reasoned action (TRA), is a model for the prediction of behavioral intention, spanning predictions of attitude and predictions of behavior. The subsequent separation of behavioral intention from behavior allows for explanation of limiting factors on attitudinal influence (Ajzen, 1980). The Theory of Reasoned Action was developed by Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen (1975, 1980), derived from previous research that started out as the theory of attitude, which led to the acquire of attitude and behavior. The theory was born largely out of frustration with handed-down attitudebehavior research, much of which found asthenic correlations between attitude measures and performance of volitional behaviors (Hale, Householder & Greene, 2003, p. 259).Pasted fromDefinition and exampleDerived from the social psychology answerting, the theory of reasoned actio n (TRA) was proposed by Ajzen and Fishbein (1975 & 1980). The components of TRA are treysome general constructs behavioral intention (BI), attitude (A), and un object average (SN). TRA suggests that a persons behavioral intention depends on the persons attitude about the behavior and inseparable norms (BI = A + SN). If a person intends to do a behavior then it is in all likelihood that the person leave alone do it. behavioural intention measures a persons congress strength of intention to perform a behavior. Attitude consists of beliefs about the consequences of playing the behavior multiplied by his or her evaluation of these consequences. (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) Subjective norm is seen as a combination of perceived expectations from relevant individuals or pigeonholings on with intentions to comply with these expectations.In other words, the persons perception that most people who are important to him or her think he should or should not perform the behavior in question (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). To put the definition into simple terms a persons volitional (voluntary) behavior is predicted by his/her attitude toward that behavior and how he/she thinks other people would view them if they performed the behavior. A persons attitude, combined with subjective norms, forms his/her behavioral intention.Fishbein and Ajzen say, though, that attitudes and norms are not dull equally in predicting behavior. Indeed, depending on the individual and the situation, these factors might be very different effects on behavioral intention thus a weight is associated with each of these factors in the prognostic prescript of the theory. For example, you might be the kind of person who cares little for what others think. If this is the case, the subjective norms would broadcast little weight in predicting your behavior (Miller, 2005, p. 127). Miller (2005) defines each of the terce components of the theory as follows and uses the example of embarking on a new forge program to illustrate the theory Attitudes the sum of beliefs about a particular behavior weighted by evaluations of these beliefs You might aim the beliefs that purpose is true(p) for your health, that exercise makes you look safe, that exercise takes too much time, and that exercise is uncomfortable. each(prenominal) of these beliefs can be weighted (e.g., health issues might be more important to you than issues of time and comfort). Subjective norms looks at the influence of people in ones social environment on his/her behavioral intentions the beliefs of people, weighted by the importance one attributes to each of their opinions, give influence ones behavioral intention You might have some friends who are avid exercisers and constantly encourage you to join them. However, your spouse might favour a more sedentary lifestyle and scoff at those who work out. The beliefs of these people, weighted by the importance you attribute to each of their opinions, volition influence your behavioral intention to exercise, which volition pass away to your behavior to exercise or not exercise. fashional intention a function of both attitudes toward a behavior and subjective norms toward that behavior, which has been found to predict actual behavior. Your attitudes about exercise combined with the subjective norms about exercise, each with their own weight, will lead you to your intention to exercise (or not), which will then lead to your actual behavior.Pasted fromIn psychology, the theory of planned behavior is a theory about the link between attitudes and behavior. The concept was proposed by Icek Ajzen to improve on the predictive power of the theory of reasoned action by including perceived behavioral curtail.1 It is one of the most predictive persuasion theories. It has been applied to studies of the relations among beliefs, attitudes, behavioral intentions and behaviors in various palm such as advertising, public relations, advertising campaigns and he althcare. The theory states that attitude toward behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, together lick an individuals behavioral intentions and behaviors.Pasted fromExtension from the theory of reasoned actionThe theory of planned behavior was proposed by Icek Ajzen in 1985 through his article From intentions to actions A theory of planned behavior. The theory was developed from the theory of reasoned action, which was proposed by Martin Fishbein together with Icek Ajzen in 1975. The theory of reasoned action was in turn grounded in various theories of attitude such as learning theories, expectancy-value theories, consistency theories,2 and attribution theory.3 According to the theory of reasoned action, if people evaluate the suggested behavior as positive (attitude), and if they think their significant others pauperism them to perform the behavior (subjective norm), this results in a higher intention (motivation) and they are more likely to do so.A high cor relation of attitudes and subjective norms to behavioral intention, and subsequently to behavior, has been confirmed in many studies.4 A counter-argument against the high relationship between behavioral intention and actual behavior has also been proposed, as the results of some studies show that, because of circumstantial limitations, behavioral intention does not always lead to actual behavior. Namely, since behavioral intention cannot be the soap determinant of behavior where an individuals control over the behavior is incomplete, Ajzen introduced the theory of planned behavior by adding a new component, perceived behavioral control. By this, he extended the theory of reasoned action to cover non-volitional behaviors for predicting behavioral intention and actual behavior.Extension of self-efficacyIn addition to attitudes and subjective norms (which make the theory of reasoned action), the theory of planned behavior adds the concept of perceived behavioral control, which origina tes from self-efficacy theory (SET). Self-efficacy was proposed by Bandura in 1977, which came from social cognitive theory. According to Bandura, expectations such as motivation, performance, and feelings of frustration associated with repeated failures regulate effect and behavioral reactions. Bandura (1986)full quotation needed separated expectations into two distinct types self-efficacy and outcome expectancy. He defined self-efficacy as the conviction that one can successfully exe gelde the behavior required to produce the outcomes.The outcome expectancy refers to a persons estimation that a granted behavior will lead to certain outcomes. He states that self-efficacy is the most important precondition for behavioral change, since it determines the initiation of coping behavior. Previous investigations have shown that peoples behavior is strongly influenced by their confidence in their ability to perform that behavior (Bandura, Adams, Hardy, & Howells, 1980).full citation nee ded As the self-efficacy theory contributes to explaining various relationships between beliefs, attitudes, intentions, and behavior, the SET has been widely applied to health-related fields such as physical activity and mental health in preadolescents,5 and exercise.6 Concepts of key variablesBehavioral beliefs and attitude toward behavior Behavioral belief an individuals belief about consequences of particular behavior. The concept is based on the subjective probability that the behavior will produce a given over outcome. Attitude toward behavior an individuals positive or negative evaluation of self-performance of the particular behavior. The concept is the degree to which performance of the behavior is positively or negatively valued. It is find out by the total set of accessible behavioral beliefs linking the behavior to various outcomes and other attributes.prescriptive beliefs and subjective norms Normative belief an individuals perception about the particular behavior, whi ch is influenced by the judgment of significant others (e.g., parents, spouse, friends, teachers).7 Subjective norm an individuals perception of social normative pressures, or relevant others beliefs that he or she should or should not perform such behavior. Control beliefs and perceived behavioral control Perceived behavioral control an individuals perceived ease or difficulty of performing the particular behavior (Ajzen, 1988).full citation needed It is fake that perceived behavioral control is determined by the total set of accessible control beliefs. Control beliefs an individuals beliefs about the presence of factors that may facilitate or impede performance of the behavior (Ajzen, 2001).full citation needed The concept of perceived behavioral control is conceptually related to self-efficacy.Behavioral intention and behavior Behavioral intention an indication of an individuals readiness to perform a given behavior. It is assumed to be an prompt antecedent of behavior (Ajzen, 2002b).full citation needed It is based on attitude toward the behavior, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control, with each predictor weighted for its importance in relation to the behavior and population of interest. Behavior an individuals patent response in a given situation with respect to a given target. Ajzen said a behavior is a function of harmonious intentions and perceptions of behavioral control in that perceived behavioral control is anticipate to moderate the effect of intention on behavior, such that a complaisant intention produces the behavior only when perceived behavioral control is strong.Pasted fromcognitive randomness is a term used in modern psychology to describe the feeling of discomfort when simultaneously holding two or more conflicting cognitions ideas, beliefs, values or emotional reactions. In a state of dissonance, people may sometimes feel disequilibrium frustration, hunger, dread, guilt, anger, embarrassment, anxiety, etc.1 The word wa s coined by Leon Festinger in his 1956 book When Prophecy Fails, which chronicled the followers of a unidentified flying object cult as reality clashed with their fervent belief in an impend apocalypse.23 Festinger subsequently published a book called A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, published in 1957, in which he outlines the theory.Cognitive dissonance is one of the most influential and broadly studied theories in social psychology. The theory of cognitive dissonance in social psychology proposes that people have a motivational drive to reduce dissonance by altering existing cognitions, adding new ones to create a consistent belief system, or alternatively by reducing the importance of any one of the dissonant elements.1 It is the distressing mental state that people feel when they note themselves doing things that dont fit with what they know, or having opinions that do not fit with other opinions they hold. 4 A key assumption is that people want their expectations to oppos e reality, creating a sense of equilibrium. 5Likewise, another assumption is that a person will avoid situations or information sources that give rise to feelings of uneasiness, or dissonance.1 Cognitive dissonance theory explains human behavior by positing that people have a bias to seek consonance between their expectations and reality. According to Festinger, people engage in a process he termed dissonance reduction, which can be achieved in one of three ways weighty the importance of one of the discordant factors, adding consonant elements, or changing one of the dissonant factors.6 This bias sheds light on otherwise puzzling, irrational, and even erosive behavior.Pasted fromThe nicety likelihood model (ELM) of persuasion1 is a dual process theory of how attitudes are formed and changed that was developed by Richard E. Petty and magic trick Cacioppo in the early 1980s (see also attitude change). The model proposes an expanding upon continuum, which determines the extent to which arguments are processed and evaluated (high elaboration) versus peripheral cues such as source expertise or attractiveness (low elaboration) shape persuasion. The model is similar to the Heuristic-systematic model of information processing developed around the same time by Shelly Chaiken.Pasted fromCentral routeCentral route processes require the auditory modality to use a great deal more thought, and therefore are likely to predominate under conditions that promote high elaboration. Central route processes involve careful scrutiny of a persuasive communication (e.g., a speech, an advertisement, etc.) to determine the merits of the arguments. Under these conditions, a persons uncomparable cognitive responses to the message determine the persuasive outcome. If a person evaluates a message centrally as reliable, well-constructed, and convincing, it will often be received as favorable even if it is contrasting to the receivers original stance on the message.So, if favorable t houghts are a result of the elaboration process, the message will most likely be accepted (i.e., an attitude congruous with the messages position will emerge), and if unfavorable thoughts are generated part considering the merits of presented arguments, the message will most likely be rejected.1 In order for the message to be centrally processed, a person must have the ability and motivation to do so. In order for the receiver to have motivation to centrally process a message it must have relevance to him or her.Peripheral routePeripheral route processes, on the other hand, does not involve elaboration of the message through extensive cognitive processing of the merits of the actual argument presented. These processes often rely on environmental characteristics of the message, like the perceived credibility of the source, quality of the way in which it is presented, the attractiveness of the source, or the catchy slogan that contains the message.1 It is also frequently used when t he argument presented is weak and/or lacking evidence. The peripheral route is a mental shortcut process that accepts or rejects a message based on irrelevant cues as opposed to actively thinking about the issue 2 The peripheral route is a process in which outside influences affect the decision making process.This is also the process used when the audience is unable to process the message. This could be from having a message that is too complex, or an audience that is immature. The most common influences would be factors such as reward. re utilisement could be objects like food, sex or money. These inducements create a busy change in mind and action. Celebrity status along with likability and expertise are other factors in the peripheral process that have constitute more popular. Humor within messages is a dominant influence in this process as well. Appearance also has the ability to gain the forethought of individuals which can create an interest in the topic, but will not crea te a strong change in individuals. The goal of the peripheral process is to create change, this change can be weak and even temporary as opposed to the strong and lasting change in the central route.Choice of routeThe two factors that most influence which route an individual will take in a persuasive situation are motivation (strong desire to process the message e.g., Petty & Cacioppo, 1979) and ability (actually being capable of critical evaluation e.g., Petty, Wells, & Brock, 1976). Which route is taken is determined by the extent of elaboration. Both motivational and ability factors determine elaboration. motivational factors include (among others) the personal relevance of the message topic, accountability, and a persons need for cognition (their innate desire to enjoy thinking). Ability factors include the availability of cognitive resources (e.g., the presence or absence of time pressures or distractions) or relevant knowledge needed to carefully scrutinize the arguments.The a bility to understand the message that is being communicated. Distractions such as go can affect the ability for one to process a message. An example of noise would be a persuader trying to share his message in a room full of crying babies, this would make it extremely difficult for listeners to concentrate on the message being given. Noise that you cant physically control would be if a persuaders listeners could concentrate on the message because they had something else on their mind which was more important than the persuaders message like a death in the family, or problems theyre having in their relationship. Another example of this is in children.A child will change their behavior because his or her parent told them to do so rather than taking the information given and processing it. As that child grows up, however, he or she will have a higher cognitive complexity, and therefore be able to process the information of the situation centrally in order to draw a conclusion of their own. (OKeefe)The subjects general education level, as well as their education and experience with the topic at hand greatly affect their ability to be persuaded. Under conditions of moderate elaboration, a classification of central and peripheral route processes will guide information processing. There are benefits and consequences for both processes. An individual who disagrees with the message being presented will likely have a boomerang effect if he or she centrally processes the message and bounce farther away from the speakers goal. If that same situation takes place, but the message is peripherally processed, a weak change will not have as large of a negative effect on that individual. (OKeefe)Type of Elaboration verifiable Versus Biased thoughtAttitude, motivation, and ability strongly increase the likelihood that a message will be ingrained in the minds of listeners. Although, as the social judgement theory suggests, they may not process the information in a fair, object ive way. Attitudes are general evaluations that people hold that correspond with how they perceive themselves in relation to the world they live in. One way to influence attitude is to give peripheral cues. Peripheral cues can be things that lead to good or punishing or they can invoke provide maneuver rules or inferences. These are often effective because they cause the audience to draw the conclusion themselves, therefore, making them believe it is their own idea, so they buy in to it. (Griffin) Many of the evaluations are based on Cognitive intelligence, behavior, and guidance.Given a basic understanding of an individuals attitudes one can interpret which type of elaboration would better suit the situation. There are two types of elaboration a listener can possess (Biased elaboration, Objective elaboration) Elaboration can lead to both positive and negative results depending on the audience who is receiving the message. Individuals who have a Pre conception of a certain topic ar e going to be much harder to persuade oppose to an individual who has an open mind about a topic where only the facts hold truth. Biased Elaboration top-down thinking in which predetermined conclusions color the supporting data.This is used on people who likely already have their minds do up about a situation before the message is ever conveyed to them (Cacioppo) Ex. Someone who has had a negative personal experience with motorcycles will plausibly have made up their minds and be biased in the way they process the message.2 Objective Elaboration Bottom-up thinking in which facts are scrutinized without bias desire truth wherever it might lead. These listeners let the facts speak for themselves and approach the message with an unbias mind. Which leads to a true unbiased result or opinion. (Cacioppo) Ex. A person who is listening to a motorcycle salesman and already has a mindset about them. This person would let the facts influence their attitude.2Testing the Elaboration likeline ss stupefyTo design a way to test the Elaboration likeliness Model, it is all-important(a) to determine whether an argument is universally seen as strong or weak. If an argument is inconsistent in opinions of strength, the results of persuasion will be inconsistent. A strong argument is defined by Petty and Cacioppo as one containing arguments such that when subjects are instructed to think about the message, the thoughts they generate are fundamentally favorable (Griffin).In general, a weak argument that is universally viewed as weak will entice unfavorable results if the subject is instructed to and is in an divert environment to consider it logically (or when testing the central route of the Elaboration likelihood Model). In turn, a strong argument under similar chance will return favorable results. The test arguments must also be rated for ease of understanding, complexity, and familiarity. To scientifically study either route of the Elaboration Likelihood Model, the argume nts themselves must be designed to have consistent results.3Conclusions of the Elaboration Likelihood ModelIn addition to these factors, the ELM also makes several unique proposals.1 It is suggested that attitudes formed under high elaboration, the central route, are stronger than those formed under low elaboration. This means that this level of persuasion is stable over time and is less susceptible to decay or any type of counter-persuasion. Attitudes formed under low elaboration, the peripheral route, are more likely to cause a short term attitude change. Variables in ELM routes can serve multiple roles in a persuasive setting depending on other contextual factors (examples below). Under high elaboration, a given variable (e.g., source expertise) can either serve as an argument (If sensation agrees with the theory of relativity, then this is a strong reason for me to as well) or as a biasing factor (if an expert agrees with this position it is probably good, so let me see what el se agrees with this conclusion at the expense of information that may disagree with it).4 Under conditions of low elaboration, a given variable can act as a peripheral cue.This could happen, e.g., through the use of an experts are always right heuristic. Note that, duration this is similar to the sensation example presented above, this is a simple shortcut, which, unlike the Einstein example, does not require careful thought. Under conditions of moderate elaboration, a given variable can serve to direct the extent of information processing If an expert agrees with this position, I should really listen to what (s)he has to say. Interestingly, when a variable affects elaboration, this can increase or decrease persuasion, depending on the strength of the arguments presented. If the arguments are strong, enhancing elaboration will enhance persuasion.If the arguments are weak, however, more thought will undermine persuasion. to a greater extent recent adaptations of the ELM (e.g.)5 ha ve added an additional role that variables can serve. They can affect the extent to which a person has confidence in, and thus trusts, their own thoughts in response to a message (self-validation role). Keeping with our source expertise example, a person may feel that if an expert presented this information, it is probably correct, and thus I can trust that my reactions to it are informative with respect to my attitude. Note that this role, because of its metacognitive nature, only occurs under conditions that promote high elaboration.Pasted fromAttitudesAttitudes are evaluations people make about objects, ideas, events, or other people. Attitudes can be positive or negative. Explicit attitudes are conscious beliefs that can guide decisions and behavior. Implicit attitudes are unconscious beliefs that can still influence decisions and behavior. Attitudes can include up to three components cognitive, emotional, and behavioral. practice session Jane believes that smoking is unhealthy, feels disgusted when people smoke around her, and avoids being in situations where people smoke. Dimensions of AttitudesResearchers study three dimensions of attitude strength, accessibility, and ambivalence. Attitude strength Strong attitudes are those that are steadfastly held and that highly influence behavior. Attitudes that are important to a person tend to be strong. Attitudes that people have a vested interest in also tend to be strong. Furthermore, people tend to have stronger attitudes about things, events, ideas, or people they have considerable knowledge and information about. Attitude accessibility The accessibility of an attitude refers to the ease with which it comes to mind. In general, highly accessible attitudes tend to be stronger. Attitude ambivalence Ambivalence of an attitude refers to the ratio of positive and negative evaluations that make up that attitude. The ambivalence of an attitude increases as the positive and negative evaluations get more and more eq ual.The Influence of Attitudes on BehaviorBehavior does not always reflect attitudes. However, attitudes do determine behavior in some situations If there are few outside influences, attitude guides behavior.Example Wyatt has an attitude that eating junk food is unhealthy. When he is at home, he does not eat chips or candy. However, when he is at parties, he indulges in these foods. Behavior is guided by attitudes specific to that behavior.Example Megan might have a general attitude of respect toward seniors, but that would not prevent her from being disrespectful to an elderly woman who cuts her off at a stop sign. However, if Megan has an easygoing attitude about being cut off at stop signs, she is not likely to swear at someone who cuts her off. Behavior is guided by attitudes that come to mind easily.Example Ron has an attitude of mistrust and annoyance toward telemarketers, so he immediately hangs up the phone whenever he realizes he has been contacted by one.The Influence of B ehavior on AttitudesBehavior also affects attitudes. Evidence for this comes from the foot-in-the-door phenomenon and the effect of role playing.The Foot-in-the-Door PhenomenonPeople tend to be more likely to agree to a difficult implore if they have first agreed to an easy one. This is called the foot-in-the-door phenomenon.Example Jill is more likely to let an acquaintance borrow her laptop for a day if he first persuades her to let him borrow her textbook for a day. well-disposed Norms and Social consumptionsSocial norms are a societys rules about appropriate behavior. Norms exist for practically every kind of situation. Some norms are explicit and are made into laws, such as the norm While driving, you may not run over a pedestrian. Other norms are implicit and are followed unconsciously, such as You may not wear a bikini to class. Social roles are patterns of behavior that are considered appropriate for a person in a particular context. For example, gender roles tell people h ow a particular society expects men and women to behave. A person who violates the requirements of a role tends to feel uneasy or to be censured by others. Role requirements can change over time in a society.The resultant of Role Playing and the Prison StudyPeople tend to internalize roles they play, changing their attitudes to fit the roles. In the 1970s, the psychologist Philip Zimbardo conducted a famous study called the prison study, which showed how roles influence people. Zimbardo assigned one group of college student volunteers to play the role of prison follows in a simulated prison environment. He provided these students with uniforms, clubs, and whistles and told them to enforce a set of rules in the prison.He assigned another group of students to play the role of prisoners. Zimbardo found that as time went on, some of the guard students became increasingly harsh and domineering. The prisoner students also internalized their role. Some broke down, while others rebelled or became passively resigned to the situation. The internalization of roles by the two groups of students was so extreme that Zimbardo had to terminate the study after only six days.